Musonius: The Forgotten Stoic
by Sonshi
Stoicism, an ancient Greek philosophy, has a fairly long tradition in America, promoted by famous poets and authors like Walt Whitman, James Joyce, and Tom Wolfe.
In terms of books sales, the four major Stoics ranked by popularity are Marcus Aurelius, Seneca (the Younger), Epictetus, and Musonius. While most modern students focus on Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus, it would be a mistake to discount Musonius -- especially since if there was one philosopher who exemplified Stoicism the best, it would be Musonius. Below is the argument that although Musonius is the least well known, he is the genesis of the modern Stoicism we all know today.
Gaius Musonius Rufus (c. 30–62 CE), a Roman aristocrat -- eques (i.e., knight), the class of aristocracy ranked second only to senators -- not only taught Stoicism but lived it. Namely, how Musonius treated those of lower class in ancient Rome is revealing. He taught a slave named Epictetus, who future Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius admired, explicitly mentioned in Meditations. Musonius promoted higher education for women, at the same level as men's, an uncommon idea in ancient Rome. He also valued families over material wealth, and was opposed to the exposure of infants, an accepted practice of his time. Musonius advised kings to be philosophers, for they must be lovers of wisdom to govern effectively.
Although none of Musonius's personal writings exists today, we know the teachings of Musonius through notes by other people who wrote down what he taught. This is reminiscent of Socrates and Plato. Unfortunately, very few material from Musonius survived, probably contributing to his low popularity among the Stoics. But like a skilled doctor who prescribes the least amount of medicine to effectively treat a disease, in Musonius's case, it's not the quantity that is important but the quality.
We might admire a philosopher from afar, perhaps generations later, but how unusual in practice we admire contemporaries. We know their faults, warts and all. No doubt our admiration would be reserved for a person of great integrity and skill, someone who practiced what he or she preaches. Likewise, Musonius's reputation was beyond reproach according to his contemporaries. His philosophies were beneficial at their face value since he was a living example of those benefits.
So it isn't surprising that Musonius's student, Epictetus, would be another philosopher who exemplified Stoicism in life application. The always stern and critical Epictetus rarely praised anyone except Socrates, Diogenes, Chrysippus, and Musonius. Given that rather short list, it is also telling that Musonius was the only one Epictetus knew personally.
A comparison is in order to further illustrate just how different Musonius was even in his privileged position. In Rome, there were two aristocrats with two completely different outlook, despite expounding the same philosophy. One was Seneca, who was an adviser to Nero, a corrupt Roman emperor. The other was our Musonius who Roman emperors respected (like Vespasian and Titus). Seneca enriched himself through the confiscation of other people's properties and rumored to committed adultery, all the while writing about fine Stoic concepts. Those who knew Seneca personally made it known through their writings he was a hypocrite. In contrast, Musonius gave encouragement to others around him even in harsh environments. For instance, when Musonius was exiled to Gyaros, in the island of Cyclades, his work ethic and resourcefulness produced fresh water, benefiting his fellow exiles. This was quite a feat since everybody thought the land was completely barren. It would seem Musonius was as physically strong as he was mentally strong.
While Stoic philosophers must be articulate to teach effectively (like Seneca), Stoicism unequivocally demands that they go beyond fine words and apply those words in everyday life. With this in mind, Musonius and Epictetus applied Stoicism in real life with authority and without major mistakes and hesitation. Therefore, it would be in the reader's best interest to study the words of Musonius and Epictetus if they truly want to understand and benefit from Stoicism.
The advice above runs counter to many who promote Seneca's teachings. Seneca's Epistles and Moral Essays were wonderfully written. However, it's the application of those concepts that Seneca failed. That's a deal breaker in Stoicism. If Seneca wasn't convinced by his own writings, how could a reader logically expect them to be practical?
Since Epictetus learned Stoicism primarily from Musonius, one could surmise that much of what Epictetus taught was passed down from Musonius himself. And what Epictetus taught in his Discourses -- transcribed by Arrian, a renowned student of Epictetus -- was so influential that Marcus Aurelius specifically mentioned it by name as one of his treasured books, introduced to him by his tutor Junius Rusticus, who was also an admirer of Epictetus. The link Musonius has to Epictetus and then to Marcus Aurelius is undeniable.
There is a major concept in the Discourses that tells of how a philosopher can always win in life's endeavors. How that is accomplished is quite simple yet insightful: if he or she can ascertain daily what truly belongs to him or her, then he or she cannot lose.
Boiling it all down, what truly belongs to philosophers is how we behave -- the only thing that we can control. Everything else doesn't belong to us. Everything else includes the countless variables that happen in life such as other people's actions -- things that are outside of our control. In other words, there is no shame in being an innocent victim but there is shame in being the perpetrator.
There is another wonderful concept in the Discourses that tells of how a philosopher can be confident in things outside of our control but we must be cautious about our own actions. Again, the idea is the duty lies in our own specific actions and reactions, and not the behaviors of others because they don't belong to us.
When we are cautious about how we behave when confronted with even multiple difficult situations, this actually frees us from trying to control anything else but things we ourselves can control. If we are careful and cognizant to do this relatively straightforward task, who can logically blame us for doing things wrong?
Furthermore, if our only duty is to choose the path that we can control, how can miscalculations be made unless we choose to miscalculate? Therefore, a philosopher could never fail. He or she would be successful in all of his or her dealings in life.
It would be reasonable to say, then, that our success in the application of Stoicism can be linked to Musonius, a practicing philosopher who seemed to have been forgotten but at least whose lessons are being applied far and wide.
Stoicism, an ancient Greek philosophy, has a fairly long tradition in America, promoted by famous poets and authors like Walt Whitman, James Joyce, and Tom Wolfe.
In terms of books sales, the four major Stoics ranked by popularity are Marcus Aurelius, Seneca (the Younger), Epictetus, and Musonius. While most modern students focus on Marcus Aurelius, Seneca, and Epictetus, it would be a mistake to discount Musonius -- especially since if there was one philosopher who exemplified Stoicism the best, it would be Musonius. Below is the argument that although Musonius is the least well known, he is the genesis of the modern Stoicism we all know today.
Gaius Musonius Rufus (c. 30–62 CE), a Roman aristocrat -- eques (i.e., knight), the class of aristocracy ranked second only to senators -- not only taught Stoicism but lived it. Namely, how Musonius treated those of lower class in ancient Rome is revealing. He taught a slave named Epictetus, who future Roman emperor Marcus Aurelius admired, explicitly mentioned in Meditations. Musonius promoted higher education for women, at the same level as men's, an uncommon idea in ancient Rome. He also valued families over material wealth, and was opposed to the exposure of infants, an accepted practice of his time. Musonius advised kings to be philosophers, for they must be lovers of wisdom to govern effectively.
Although none of Musonius's personal writings exists today, we know the teachings of Musonius through notes by other people who wrote down what he taught. This is reminiscent of Socrates and Plato. Unfortunately, very few material from Musonius survived, probably contributing to his low popularity among the Stoics. But like a skilled doctor who prescribes the least amount of medicine to effectively treat a disease, in Musonius's case, it's not the quantity that is important but the quality.
We might admire a philosopher from afar, perhaps generations later, but how unusual in practice we admire contemporaries. We know their faults, warts and all. No doubt our admiration would be reserved for a person of great integrity and skill, someone who practiced what he or she preaches. Likewise, Musonius's reputation was beyond reproach according to his contemporaries. His philosophies were beneficial at their face value since he was a living example of those benefits.
So it isn't surprising that Musonius's student, Epictetus, would be another philosopher who exemplified Stoicism in life application. The always stern and critical Epictetus rarely praised anyone except Socrates, Diogenes, Chrysippus, and Musonius. Given that rather short list, it is also telling that Musonius was the only one Epictetus knew personally.
A comparison is in order to further illustrate just how different Musonius was even in his privileged position. In Rome, there were two aristocrats with two completely different outlook, despite expounding the same philosophy. One was Seneca, who was an adviser to Nero, a corrupt Roman emperor. The other was our Musonius who Roman emperors respected (like Vespasian and Titus). Seneca enriched himself through the confiscation of other people's properties and rumored to committed adultery, all the while writing about fine Stoic concepts. Those who knew Seneca personally made it known through their writings he was a hypocrite. In contrast, Musonius gave encouragement to others around him even in harsh environments. For instance, when Musonius was exiled to Gyaros, in the island of Cyclades, his work ethic and resourcefulness produced fresh water, benefiting his fellow exiles. This was quite a feat since everybody thought the land was completely barren. It would seem Musonius was as physically strong as he was mentally strong.
While Stoic philosophers must be articulate to teach effectively (like Seneca), Stoicism unequivocally demands that they go beyond fine words and apply those words in everyday life. With this in mind, Musonius and Epictetus applied Stoicism in real life with authority and without major mistakes and hesitation. Therefore, it would be in the reader's best interest to study the words of Musonius and Epictetus if they truly want to understand and benefit from Stoicism.
The advice above runs counter to many who promote Seneca's teachings. Seneca's Epistles and Moral Essays were wonderfully written. However, it's the application of those concepts that Seneca failed. That's a deal breaker in Stoicism. If Seneca wasn't convinced by his own writings, how could a reader logically expect them to be practical?
Since Epictetus learned Stoicism primarily from Musonius, one could surmise that much of what Epictetus taught was passed down from Musonius himself. And what Epictetus taught in his Discourses -- transcribed by Arrian, a renowned student of Epictetus -- was so influential that Marcus Aurelius specifically mentioned it by name as one of his treasured books, introduced to him by his tutor Junius Rusticus, who was also an admirer of Epictetus. The link Musonius has to Epictetus and then to Marcus Aurelius is undeniable.
There is a major concept in the Discourses that tells of how a philosopher can always win in life's endeavors. How that is accomplished is quite simple yet insightful: if he or she can ascertain daily what truly belongs to him or her, then he or she cannot lose.
Boiling it all down, what truly belongs to philosophers is how we behave -- the only thing that we can control. Everything else doesn't belong to us. Everything else includes the countless variables that happen in life such as other people's actions -- things that are outside of our control. In other words, there is no shame in being an innocent victim but there is shame in being the perpetrator.
There is another wonderful concept in the Discourses that tells of how a philosopher can be confident in things outside of our control but we must be cautious about our own actions. Again, the idea is the duty lies in our own specific actions and reactions, and not the behaviors of others because they don't belong to us.
When we are cautious about how we behave when confronted with even multiple difficult situations, this actually frees us from trying to control anything else but things we ourselves can control. If we are careful and cognizant to do this relatively straightforward task, who can logically blame us for doing things wrong?
Furthermore, if our only duty is to choose the path that we can control, how can miscalculations be made unless we choose to miscalculate? Therefore, a philosopher could never fail. He or she would be successful in all of his or her dealings in life.
It would be reasonable to say, then, that our success in the application of Stoicism can be linked to Musonius, a practicing philosopher who seemed to have been forgotten but at least whose lessons are being applied far and wide.